Social Psychology Essay Example for Free

Social Psychology Essay Now imagine that you are a social psychologist, for this assignment you must use social concepts learned in this chapter to explain some of the strange, terrible, and outrageous things that people do to each other. Read the following stories and respond to the questions with complete sentences that are free of spelling and grammatical errors. All of the following are based on a real-life story reported in the press!!!! CAN YOU MAKE FAT DISAPPEAR?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (Adapted from: Newsweek, March 2, 1992, p. 69)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The cosmetic companies made an estimated $50 million by selling anticellulite creams to women. However, research by respected dermatologists show that anticellulite creams are totally worthless in eliminating cellulite, which is really little pockets of fat. With these negative findings in mind, how does the cosmetics industry persuade American women to spend $50 million a year on anticellulite creams that dermatologists claim are worthless? The cosmetics companies use very clever advertising. They show photos of beautiful women along with promises that anticellulite creams will wash away unsightly ripples, create a new you, and give you the beautiful body you always wanted. Question1: What are the four elements of persuasion? Identify the four elements using the above scenario.     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Persuasion, to be effective, has to possess the four elements namely: meaningful, relevant, challenging and actionable. â€Å"Anticellulite creams†, the product introduced in the market is in itself very meaningful to women in order to stay attractive. It is relevant to the need and current trend, which is reducing fats that could affect the attractiveness of a woman. Its introduction in the market is likewise, challenging because its effectiveness is being challenged by some respected dermatologists that made it increase its publicity even more. Lastly, it is actionable because the way its being advertised has hit the weakness of the target market, women, with the use of â€Å"photos of beautiful women along with promises that anticellulite creams will wash away unsightly ripples, create a new you, and give you the beautiful body you always wanted†, a truly perfect way to catch womens attention. Question 2: Why do women continue to buy anticellulite creams when scientists have demonstrated that these creams are worthless?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Despite the claims that â€Å"anticellulite† creams are worthless, they continue to attract women because the way they are being introduced in the market is very persuasive. It possessed the four major elements of persuasion. Moreover, customers are after for the concrete result. Research findings that are often expressed in figures or mere words do not create as much impact as a photo of a beautiful woman, whose face became younger and more attractive after using the product. Customers esily link the beautiful face with the product, thus making it easier to sell. CAN A LABEL FOOL A BEER DRINKER?   Ã‚  Ã‚   (Adapted from: Los Angeles Times, Dec. 30, 1988, p. IV-4)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Last summer, the Coors brewery added only two new words Original Draft to the labels of its best-selling beer. Regular Coors drinkers saw the new label and believed it was a new beer. They complained about the new taste and said they preferred the taste of their old Coors. Suddenly, sales slowed as drinkers refused to buy cans of beer with the two new words. But, Coors had not changed the beer. They had only changed two words on the label. However, the Coors brewery was not about to argue with its loyal customers. Coors removed the two new words from the label. Within weeks, sales rose and the drinkers were happy. Question 1: Can you define one component of attitudes and illustrate it with an example from the beer drinkers?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   One component of attitude is cognition which refers to our beliefs, theories, expectancies, cause and effect beliefs, and perceptions relative to the focal object. In the scenario presented above, the focal object was a beer with two new words on the label. Since there was something new on the label, the beer drinkers have automatically expected something new on the product itself, which they claimed to have a different taste than the original. The two new words added on the label have influenced them to believe that there was a change in the formulation or ingredient, causing the perceived change in taste, even   if none was really altered from the original fomulation. Question 2: Can you define a second component of attitudes and illustrate it with an example from the beer drinkers?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A second component of attitude that can be found in this example is behavioral intentions, which refers to our goals, aspirations, and our expected responses to the attitude object. The beer drinkers in this example definitely wanted the original label, thus affecting the sales of Coors. Instead of arguing with their loyal customers, Coors resumed to its original label and the response was good because sales started to rise again.   Question 3: Can you define a third component of attitudes and illustrate it with an example from the beer drinkers?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A third component of attitude, which i have also seen in the example presented above is Evaluation. This is said to be the function of cognitive, affect and behavioral intentions of the object. The beer drinkers believed that the beer with a new two words in the label is different from the original best-selling beer of Coors. This belief caused them to describe its taste as different from the original. As a result, sales went down but when the label was restored to the original, even if none was changed in the formualtion, sales rose and the customers became happy again. GIRL RAPED AND CROWDS LOOKS ON?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   (Adapted from: San Diego Tribune, July 29, 1983)       After spending the whole day visiting the zoo, 13-year-old Diane decided to cool off in the large pool with a water fountain in the middle. She rolled up her baggy jeans and waded in up to her knees. She wasnt paying much attention to the two older boys who had waded in and were approaching her. When they got close, they grabbed her and pulled her to the middle of the pool. They held her down against the concrete base of the fountain. As the fountain sprayed them with water, the two boys took turns raping Diane. About 35 people who were walking around the fountain heard Dianes screams for help. Not one of them offered to help. Question 1: Can you explain the concept that describes why none of the 35 people did anything to help Diane?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The sad experience of Diane is attributable to what we call in social pschology as the â€Å"bystander effect†. When there is an emergency, the more bystanders there are, the less likely it is that any of them will acually help. The 35 people, though they heard the screams of Diane, did not actually offer help because they assumed that nothing was wrong because nobody else looks concerned. Question 2: Can you explain how the diffusion of responsibility theory describes why 35 people who heard Dianes screams did nothing to help?   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Bystanders go through a five-step process and during each of which, they can decide to do nothing. Firstly, they were probably in a hurry to notice the event, thus are unable to help. If they did notice, they assumed that as others are not acting, it is not an emergency, so again no help was offered. Next, they assumed that others will do this, since there are many people around, so no help was offered. Sometimes, bystanders simply do not know what to do out of panicky thus, unable to help lastly, instead of acting on it and help, some worry about the danger and hassle of being involved, thus they pretend to have not known anything about it or pretend that nothing was wrong.

The Stereotypical Old-West Lawman :: Media Stereotypes Stereotyping

The Stereotypical Old-West Lawman Justice, duty, silence, wisdom, bravery, self-reliance, independence, respect; these are all characteristics of the old-west lawman. Matt Dillon, marshal of Dodge City, is just such a lawman. His sense of justice, duty, and wisdom epitomize the stereotypical old-west hero. In the episode entitled Fawn, Marshal Dillon is charged with a woman that escaped an Indian camp. She is accompanied by a young Indian girl. They are in Dodge till the womans husband arrives fetch her. While the woman is waiting for her husband a man comes to speak to her. He accepts her and the little girl. When the husband arrives he wants the girl to go to a reservation, but the woman refuses to let her go. The husband divorces the woman and goes back east. The woman must run with the little girl because the government wants to put the little girl on a reservation. Marshal Dillon arranges for the man that spoke to the woman earlier to take both the woman and the little girl away with him. This saves the little girl. Throughout the episode Marshal Dillon defends the woman, because he thinks she and the little girl are treated unjustly. In the episode entitled How to Kill a Friend, a pair of gamblers come to town. They try to bribe Marshal Dillon, but he refuses to take their bribe. Later, someone shoots at the marshal as a scare tactic. He figures out that the gamblers shot at him and he runs them out of town. Usually such men move on to another town and dont return; but these men returned. This time they brought a gunman to keep Dillon in check. The gunman turns out to be an old friend of the marshal. He tries to convince his friend to leave, but the man has turned bad and refuses. Eventually they get into a confrontation. In the process, Dillon shoots and kills his friend. Though he is saddened that he killed his friend, he had to do his duty. He had done his best to dissuade his friend, but had to fulfill his duty. In the episode How to Die for Nothing, a bunch of cowboys from Texas come into town. One of them is drunk and when the marshal tries to take away his gun, he tries to shoot Dillon. Dillon had to shoot the cowboy and he ended up dying.

Piaget’s theory Essay

Donaldson also found that children pay great attention to the social context of a task. As they are in the process of developing a vocabulary, they rely on contextual clues to enhance their understanding of verbal communications. Piaget devised a task to study children’s understanding of the conservation of liquid. He asked whether the amount of liquid had changed after being poured from one shape vessel to another. Unable to sense a purpose in the activity, the children gave an answer based on the variable that has changed, i. e. the shape of the vessel. Making sense of the conservation task, putting it in a socially understandable context, achieved better results. A study by Light, Buckingham & Robbins (1979) involved 2 groups of 6 year olds. The first group were shown some pasta shells poured from the first breaker to a wider one and 95 per cent of the children confirmed Piaget’s finding as being non-conservers. The second group of children were told that the shells were to be used in a game and the reason for the transference of shells was a chip on the rim of the first beaker. This time only 30 per cent of the children gave non-conserving answers. It would seem that the task must make human sense to the child, not just to the investigator. Even though Donaldson’s approach highlights the way in which Piaget underestimated children’s abilities, it made no criticism of the theoretical framework. The lasting aspects of Piaget’s admirable body of work include the concept of a progression through developmental stages. There is a general agreement that the changes involved in the progression are of a qualitative nature, and, as Piaget explained, they come about as a result of constructive activity. Developmental psychology will continue to evolve, grateful for the solid foundation

Fluid, Electrolyte, and Acid-Base Balance: Introduction to Body Fluids Essay

   Fluid Compartments Water occupies two main fluid compartments Intracellular fluid (ICF) – about two thirds by volume, contained in cells Extracellular fluid (ECF) – consists of two major subdivisions Plasma – the fluid portion of the blood Interstitial fluid (IF) – fluid in spaces between cells Other ECF – lymph, cerebrospinal fluid, eye humors, synovial fluid, serous fluid, and gastrointestinal secretions Extracellular and Intracellular Fluids Water is the universal solvent Solutes are broadly classified into: Electrolytes – inorganic salts, all acids and bases, and some proteins Electrolytes determine the chemical and physical reactions of fluids Electrolytes have greater osmotic power than nonelectrolytes Water moves according to osmotic gradients Nonelectrolytes – examples include glucose, lipids, creatinine, and urea Each fluid compartment of the body has a distinctive pattern of electrolytes Extracellular fluids are similar (except for high protein content of plasma) Sodium is the chief cation Chloride is the major anion Intracellular fluids have low sodium and chloride Potassium is the chief cation Phosphate is the chief anion Proteins, phospholipids, cholesterol, and neutral fats account for: 90% of the mass of solutes in plasma 60% of the mass of solutes in interstitial fluid 97% of the mass of solutes in the intracellular compartment Fluid Movement Among Compartments Compartmental exchange is regulated by osmotic and hydrostatic pressures Net leakage of fluid from the blood is picked up by lymphatic vessels and returned to the bloodstream Exchanges between interstitial and intracellular fluids are complex due to the selective permeability of the cellular membranes Two-way water flow is substantial Ion fluxes are restricted and move selectively by active transport Nutrients, respiratory gases, and wastes move unidirectionally Plasma is the only fluid that circulates throughout the body and links external and internal environments Osmolalities of all body fluids are equal; changes in solute concentrations are quickly followed by osmotic changes Water Balance and ECF Osmolality To remain properly hydrated, water intake must equal water output Water intake sources Ingested fluid (60%) and solid food (30%) Metabolic water or water of oxidation (10%) Water output Urine (60%) and feces (4%) Insensible losses (28%), sweat (8%) Increases in plasma osmolality trigger thirst and release of antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Regulation of Water – Homeostaisis Intake – Hypothalmic Thirst Center Thirst is quenched as soon as we begin to drink water Feedback signals that inhibit the thirst centers include: Moistening of the mucosa of the mouth and throat Activation of stomach and intestinal stretch receptors Influence and Regulation of ADH Water reabsorption in collecting ducts is proportional to ADH release Low ADH levels produce dilute urine and reduced volume of body fluids High ADH levels produce concentrated urine Hypothalamic osmoreceptors trigger or inhibit ADH release Factors that specifically trigger ADH release include prolonged fever; excessive sweating, vomiting, or diarrhea; severe blood loss; and traumatic burns Disorders of Water Balance: Dehydration Water loss exceeds water intake and the body is in negative fluid balance Causes include: hemorrhage, severe burns, prolonged vomiting or diarrhea, profuse sweating, water deprivation, and diuretic abuse Signs and symptoms: cottonmouth, thirst, dry flushed skin, and oliguria Prolonged dehydration may lead to weight loss, fever, mental confusion Other consequences include hypovolemic shock and loss of electrolytes Hypotonic Hydration Renal insufficiency or an extraordinary amount of water ingested quickly can lead to cellular overhydration, or water intoxication ECF is diluted – sodium content is normal but excess water is present The resulting hyponatremia promotes net osmosis into tissue cells, causing swelling These events must be quickly reversed to prevent severe metabolic disturbances, particularly in neurons Edema. Atypical accumulation of fluid in the interstitial space, leading to tissue swelling Caused by anything that increases flow of fluids out of the bloodstream or hinders their return. Factors that accelerate fluid loss  include: Increased blood pressure, capillary permeability Incompetent venous valves, localized blood vessel blockage Congestive heart failure, hypertension, high blood volume Hindered fluid return usually reflects an imbalance in colloid osmotic pressures Hypoproteinemia – low levels of plasma proteins Forces fluids out of capillary beds at the arterial ends Fluids fail to return at the venous ends Results from protein malnutrition, liver disease, or glomerulonephritis Blocked (or surgically removed) lymph vessels: Cause leaked proteins to accumulate in interstitial fluid Exert increasing colloid osmotic pressure, which draws fluid from the blood Interstitial fluid accumulation results in low blood pressure and severely impaired circulation Sodium in Fluid and Electrolyte Balance Sodium holds a central position in fluid and electrolyte balance Sodium salts: Account for 90-95% of all solutes in the ECF Contribute 280 mOsm of the total 300 mOsm ECF solute concentration Sodium is the single most abundant cation in the ECF Sodium is the only cation exerting significant osmotic pressure The role of sodium in controlling ECF volume and water distribution in the body is a result of: Sodium being the only cation to exert significant osmotic pressure Sodium ions leaking into cells and being pumped out against their electrochemical gradient Sodium concentration in the ECF normally remains stable Changes in plasma sodium levels affect: Plasma volume, blood pressure ICF and interstitial fluid volumes Renal acid-base control mechanisms are coupled to sodium ion transport Regulation of Sodium Balance: Aldosterone The renin-angiotensin mechanism triggers the release of aldosterone This is mediated by juxtaglomerular apparatus, which releases renin in response to: Sympathetic nervous system stimulation Decreased filtrate osmolality Decreased stretch due to decreased blood pressure Renin catalyzes the production of angiotensin II, which prompts aldosterone release Adrenal cortical cells are directly stimulated to release aldosterone by elevated K+ levels in the ECF Aldosterone brings about its effects (diminished urine output and increased blood volume) slowly Cardiovascular System Baroreceptors Baroreceptors alert the brain of increases in blood volume (hence increased blood pressure) Sympathetic nervous system impulses to the kidneys decline Afferent arterioles dilate Glomerular filtration rate rises Sodium and water output increase This phenomenon, called pressure diuresis, decreases blood pressure Drops in systemic blood pressure lead to opposite actions and systemic blood pressure increases Since sodium ion concentration determines fluid volume, baroreceptors can be viewed as â€Å"sodium receptors† Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP) Reduces blood pressure and blood volume by inhibiting: Events that promote vasoconstriction Na+ and water retention Is released in the heart atria as a response to stretch (elevated blood pressure) Has potent diuretic and natriuretic effects Promotes excretion of sodium and water Inhibits angiotensin II production Influence of Other Hormones on Sodium Balance Estrogens: Enhance NaCl reabsorption by renal tubules May cause water retention during menstrual cycles Are responsible for edema during pregnancy Progesterone: Decreases sodium reabsorption Acts as a diuretic, promoting sodium and water loss Glucocorticoids – enhance reabsorption of sodium and promote edema Regulation of Potassium Balance Relative ICF-ECF potassium ion concentration affects a cell’s resting membrane potential Excessive ECF potassium decreases membrane potential Too little K+ causes hyperpolarization and nonresponsiveness Hyperkalemia and hypokalemia can: Disrupt electrical conduction in the heart Lead to sudden death Hydrogen ions shift in and out of cells Leads to corresponding shifts in potassium in the opposite direction Interferes with activity of excitable cells Influence of Aldosterone Aldosterone stimulates potassium ion secretion by principal cells In cortical collecting ducts, for each Na+ reabsorbed, a K+ is secreted Increased K+ in the ECF around the adrenal cortex causes: Release of aldosterone –>Potassium secretion Potassium controls its own ECF concentration via feedback regulation of aldosterone release Regulation of Calcium Ionic calcium in ECF is important for: Blood clotting Cell membrane permeability Secretory behavior Hypocalcemia: Increases excitability, causes muscle tetany Hypercalcemia: inhibits neurons and muscle cells; cause heart arrhythmias Calcium balance is controlled by parathyroid hormone and calcitonin PTH promotes increase in calcium levels by targeting: Bones – PTH activates osteoclasts to break down bone matrix Small intestine – PTH enhances intestinal absorption of calcium Kidneys – PTH enhances calcium reabsorption and decreases phosphate reabsorption Calcium reabsorption and phosphate excretion go hand in hand Influence of Calcitonin Released in response to rising blood calcium levels Calcitonin is a PTH antagonist, but its contribution to calcium and phosphate homeostasis is minor to negligible Acid Base Balance Introduction to Acids and Bases Strong acids – all their H+ is dissociated completely in water Weak acids – dissociate partially in water and are efficient at preventing pH changes Strong bases – dissociate easily in water and quickly tie up H+ Weak bases – accept H+ more slowly (e.g., HCO3 ¯ and NH3) Normal pH of body fluids Arterial blood is 7.4 Venous blood and interstitial fluid is 7.35 Intracellular fluid is 7.0 Alkalosis or alkalemia – arterial blood pH rises above 7.45 Acidosis or acidemia – arterial pH drops below 7.35 (physiological acidosis) Sources of Hydrogen Ions – Most hydrogen ions originate from cellular metabolism Breakdown of phosphorus-containing proteins releases phosphoric acid into the ECF Anaerobic respiration of glucose produces lactic acid Fat metabolism yields organic acids and ketone bodies Transporting carbon dioxide as bicarbonate releases hydrogen ions Hydrogen Ion Regulation Concentration of hydrogen ions is regulated sequentially by: Chemical buffer systems – act within seconds Physiological buffer systems The respiratory center in the brain stem – acts within 1-3 minutes Renal mechanisms – require hours to days to effect pH changes Chemical Buffer Systems Bicarbonate Buffer System A mixture of carbonic acid (H2CO3) and its salt, sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3) (potassium or magnesium bicarbonates work as well) If strong acid is added: Hydrogen ions released combine with the bicarbonate ions and form carbonic acid (a weak acid) The pH of the solution decreases only slightly If strong base is added: It reacts with the carbonic acid to form sodium bicarbonate (a weak base) The pH of the solution rises only slightly This system is the only important ECF buffer Phosphate Buffer System Nearly identical to the bicarbonate system Its components are: Sodium salts of dihydrogen phosphate (H2PO4 ¯), a weak acid Monohydrogen phosphate (HPO42 ¯), a weak base This system is an effective buffer in urine and intracellular fluid Protein Buffer System Plasma and intracellular proteins are the body’s most plentiful and powerful buffers Some amino acids of proteins have: Free organic acid groups (weak acids) Groups that act as weak bases (e.g., amino groups) Amphoteric molecules are protein molecules that can function as both a weak acid and a weak base Physiological Buffer Systems Respiratory Buffer System The respiratory system regulation of acid-base balance is a physiological buffering system There is a reversible equilibrium between: Dissolved carbon dioxide and water Carbonic acid and the hydrogen and bicarbonate ions CO2 + H2O –> H2CO3 –> H+ + HCO3 ¯ During carbon dioxide unloading, hydrogen ions are incorporated into water When hypercapnia or rising plasma H+ occurs: Deeper and more rapid breathing expels more carbon dioxide Hydrogen ion concentration is reduced Alkalosis causes slower, more shallow breathing, causing H+ to increase Respiratory system impairment causes acid-base imbalance (respiratory acidosis or respiratory alkalosis) Renal Mechanisms of Acid-Base Balance Introduction Chemical buffers can tie up excess acids or bases, but they cannot eliminate them from the body The lungs can eliminate carbonic acid by eliminating carbon dioxide Only the kidneys can rid the body of metabolic acids (phosphoric, uric, and lactic acids and ketones) and prevent metabolic acidosis The ultimate acid-base regulatory organs are the kidneys The most important renal mechanisms for regulating acid-base balance are: Conserving (reabsorbing) or generating new bicarbonate ions Excreting bicarbonate ions Losing a bicarbonate ion is the same as gaining a hydrogen ion; reabsorbing a bicarbonate ion is the same as losing a hydrogen ion Hydrogen ion secretion occurs in the PCT Hydrogen ions come from the dissociation of carbonic acid Reabsorption of Bicarbonate CO2 combines with water in tubule cells, forming H2CO3 H2CO3 splits into H+ and HCO3- For each H+ secreted, a Na+ and a HCO3- are reabsorbed by the PCT cells Secreted H+ form H2CO3; thus, HCO3- disappears from filtrate at the same rate that it enters the peritubular capillary blood H2CO3 formed in filtrate dissociates to release CO2 + H2 CO2 then diffuses into tubule cells, where it acts to trigger further H+ secretion Hydrogen Ion Excretion Dietary H+ must be counteracted by generating new HCO3- The excreted H+ must bind to buffers in the urine (phosphate buffer system) Intercalated cells actively secrete H+ into urine, which is buffered and excreted HCO3- generated is: Moved into the interstitial space via a cotransport system Passively moved into the peritubular capillary blood In response to acidosis: Kidneys generate HCO3-and add them to the blood An equal amount of H+ are added to the urine Ammonium Ion (NH4+) Excretion This method uses NH4+ produced by the metabolism of glutamine in PCT cells Each glutamine metabolized produces two ammonium ions and two bicarbonate ions HCO3- moves to the blood and ammonium ions are excreted in urine Respiratory Acidosis and Alkalosis Result from failure of the respiratory system to balance pH PCO2 is the single most important indicator of respiratory inadequacy PCO2 levels – normal PCO2 fluctuates between 35 and 45 mm Hg Values above 45 mm Hg signal respiratory acidosis Values below 35 mm Hg indicate respiratory alkalosis Respiratory acidosis is the most common cause of acid-base imbalance Occurs when a person breathes shallowly, or gas exchange is hampered by diseases such as pneumonia, cystic fibrosis, or emphysema Respiratory alkalosis is a common result of hyperventilation Metabolic Acidosis All pH imbalances except those caused by abnormal blood carbon dioxide levels Metabolic acid-base imbalance – bicarbonate ion levels above or below normal (22-26 mEq/L) Metabolic acidosis is second most common cause of acid-base imbalance Typical causes are ingestion of too much alcohol and excessive loss of bicarbonate ions Other causes include accumulation of lactic acid, shock, ketosis in diabetic crisis, starvation, and kidney failure Metabolic Alkalosis Rising blood pH and bicarbonate levels indicate metabolic alkalosis Typical causes are: Vomiting of the acid contents of the stomach Intake of excess base (e.g., from antacids) Constipation, in which excessive bicarbonate is reabsorbed Respiratory and Renal Compensations Acid-base imbalance due to inadequacy of a physiological buffer system is compensated for by the other system The respiratory system will attempt to correct metabolic acid-base imbalances The kidneys will work to correct imbalances caused by respiratory disease Respiratory Compenstaion In metabolic acidosis: The rate and depth of breathing are elevated Blood pH is below 7.35 and bicarbonate level is low As carbon dioxide is eliminated by the respiratory system, PCO2 falls below normal In metabolic alkalosis: Compensation exhibits slow, shallow breathing, allowing carbon dioxide to accumulate in the blood Correction is revealed by: High pH (over 7.45) and elevated bicarbonate ion levels RisingPCO2 Renal Compensation To correct respiratory acid-base imbalance, renal mechanisms are stepped up Acidosis has high PCO2 and high bicarbonate levels The high PCO2 s the cause of acidosis The high bicarbonate levels indicate the kidneys are retaining bicarbonate to offset the acidosis Alkalosis has Low PCO2 and high pH The kidneys eliminate bicarbonate from the body by failing to reclaim it or by actively secreting it

Determining Responsibility of Negligence for The Plaintiffs Injuries †Tort Law Essay (400 Level Course)

Determining Responsibility of Negligence for The Plaintiffs Injuries – Tort Law Essay (400 Level Course) Free Online Research Papers Determining Responsibility of Negligence for The Plaintiff’s Injuries Tort Law Essay (400 Level Course) Summers V. Tice 33 Cal. 2d 80,199 P2d 1(1948) Facts: Plaintiffs action was against both defendants for an injury to his right eye and face as the result of bring struck by bird shot discharged from a shotgun. The case was tried by the court without a jury and the court found that on November 20, 1945, plaintiff and the two defendants were hunting quail on the open range. Each of the defendants was armed with a 12 gauge shotgun loaded with shells containing 7 1/2 size shot. Prior to going hunting plaintiff discussed the hunting procedure with defendants, indicating that they were to exercise care when shooting and to keep in line. In the course of hunting plaintiff proceeded up a hill, thus placing the hunters at the points of a triangle. The view of defendants with reference to plaintiff was unobstructed and they knew his location. Defendant Tice flushed a quail which rose in flight to a ten foot elevation and flew between plaintiff and defendants. Both defendants shot at the quail, shooting in plaintiffs direction. At that time defendants were 75 yards from plaintiff. One shot struck plaintiff in his eye and another in his upper lip. Finally it was found by the court that as the direct result of the shooting by defendants the shots struck plaintiff as above mentioned and that defendants were negligent in so shooting and plaintiff was not contributor ily negligent. Judicial History: The circuit court ruled in favor of the plaintiff for injuries received while hunting. The appellate court affirmed. The Supreme Court of California denied the hearing of the appellants. Issues: Whether the defendant’s are guilty of negligence for the plaintiff’s injuries. Whether the plaintiff was guilty of contributory negligence in the hunting accident. Should both defendants’ be held jointly and severally liable? Rules: Yes, both defendants’ are guilty of the negligence caused to the plaintiff in the hunting accident. The court of appeals affirmed the decision of the lower court. The Supreme Court of California denied a hearing. Analysis: The court found that both defendants had shot at the same time in the direction of the plaintiff and knew his location. The defendants acted negligently. It has been held that when a hunting party does exist that it is known to stand in a straight line. Both defendants are held liable when shooting in the direction of the plaintiff. It is up to the defendants to determine the others negligence compared to their own. Conclusion: The judgment was affirmed. Research Papers on Determining Responsibility of Negligence for The Plaintiff’s Injuries - Tort Law Essay (400 Level Course)Capital PunishmentUnreasonable Searches and SeizuresPETSTEL analysis of IndiaPersonal Experience with Teen PregnancyQuebec and CanadaThe Relationship Between Delinquency and Drug UseAppeasement Policy Towards the Outbreak of World War 2Research Process Part OneTrailblazing by Eric AndersonThe Hockey Game

Life Science Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Life Science - Essay Example This goal line technique (GLT) is used to show when the goal crosses the goal line. The technology works with the aid of an electronic device implanted in the ball and detected by the goal posts. This assists the referee in calling if a team has scored or not. This technology’s main aim is to aid referees in making the decision and does not replace the work of referees. The technology should provide whether the ball fully crosses the line, which makes it easier for the referee to make the final call. Sets of implemented systems involved testing of the Hawk-Eye and the GoalRef system. In the FIFA Club World Cup of 2012 in Japan, the goal line technology became applicable for the first time. Maintaining clear reference especially in global sporting events remains dependent on technology. The technology use in football not only aids in individualized analysis, but also eliminates unfair judgment (Topendsports

Macroeconomics (savings ratio) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Macroeconomics (savings ratio) - Essay Example A change in any factor that has an impact on the consumption apart from the income is said to result in a shift in the consumption function and this would ultimately affect the saving potential of an individual. The factors affecting the consumption function are: A cut in the interest rate will enhance the consumption at all levels of income and will lead to an upward shift in the consumption function. Lower interest rate act to reduce the cost of servicing any mortgage or other debt and thereby increases the effective disposable income in the hands of the homeowners. Contrastingly a period of higher interest rate is expected to curtail the consumer spending. Any apprehension about rising unemployment levels resulting in worsening situations of income level might result in a reduced confidence level of the consumers and a fall in the spending at all levels of income. In contrast to this situation any expectations of improvement in the health of the economy would increase the confidence of the consumers and the resultant planned spending. The changes in the spending behaviour of the consumers affected by the above factors will have a direct bearing on the saving potential of the individuals. ... In contrast to this situation any expectations of improvement in the health of the economy would increase the confidence of the consumers and the resultant planned spending. The changes in the spending behaviour of the consumers affected by the above factors will have a direct bearing on the saving potential of the individuals. The consumption function thus determines the amount of saving that an individual can earmark out of his disposable income towards saving. This ultimately goes to decide the saving ratio which is a factor of the saving against the disposable income. Saving Saving represents a decision to postpone the consumption by saving the money out of the disposable income. There exist a number of motivations behind the saving habits of individuals: Precautionary Saving With a view to avoid the future inconveniences and other potential financial issues that may arise due to unemployment or any other reason, people resort to saving by smoothing their present spending. Building Spending Power Saving presently will enable any one to acquire a future spending power and to meet any major financial commitments at a future data that may arise due to unexpected happenings. Interest Rates and Savings The incentives offered by higher interest rates from banks, building societies and other financial institutions may generate more willingness to save. Desire to Bequeath Strong desire to bequeath more wealth to future generations act as a strong motivator for saving habits Impact of Life Cycle of Consumers At the young age the consumers may borrow more to meet their commitments and once they become older with the easing of